Applying Physical Ergonomics to Modern Ship Design

The importance of the human element in maritime safety is increasingly being recognised by the shipping and offshore communities and is receiving increased levels of attention due to the efforts of organisations such as the United States Coast Guard (USCG), the United Kingdom’s Health and Safety Executive (HSE), and the International Maritime Organisation (IMO). The IMO’s primary efforts have concentrated on human element issues relating to management, training, and personnel, as reflected by the International Management Code for the Safe Operation of Ships and for Pollution Prevention (the ISM Code) in 1993 and the update of the International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification, and Watchkeeping for Seafarers (STCW) in 2012. While organisations such as the IMO have issued other documents, circulars, and guidelines related to aspects of ergonomics, systematic application of ergonomics in the maritime industry remains limited. This lack of systematic application occurs even though ergonomics has been recognised to be central to improving safety and productivity. This book is intended to promote the application and understanding of ergonomic knowledge to maritime and offshore systems. To that end, ergonomics, or human factors engineering as it is also referred to, can be defined as follows: The importance of the human element in maritime safety is increasingly being recognised by the shipping and offshore communities and is receiving increased levels of attention due to the efforts of organisations such as the United States Coast Guard (USCG), the United Kingdom’s Health and Safety Executive (HSE), and the International Maritime Organisation (IMO). The IMO’s primary efforts have concentrated on human element issues relating to management, training, and personnel, as reflected by the International Management Code for the Safe Operation of Ships and for Pollution Prevention (the ISM Code) in 1993 and the update of the International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification, and Watchkeeping for Seafarers (STCW) in 2012. While organisations such as the IMO have issued other documents, circulars, and guidelines related to aspects of ergonomics, systematic application of ergonomics in the maritime industry remains limited. This lack of systematic application occurs even though ergonomics has been recognised to be central to improving safety and productivity. This book is intended to promote the application and understanding of ergonomic knowledge to maritime and offshore systems. To that end, ergonomics, or human factors engineering as it is also referred to, can be defined as follows:

This chapter examines and discusses the design and usability of controls on a vessel’s navigational bridge. The guidance contained in this chapter applies to devices used for control of equipment, consoles and panels.

The principles and guidance in this chapter apply to instruments or devices that present visual or audible information.

The IMO Resolution A.1021(26), Code on Alerts and Indicators, provides us with the “general design guidance to promote uniformity of type, location, and priority…” for alerts and indicators. Where applicable, that IMO resolution should be used for determining design and implementation of alarms, alerts, and associated indicators. The document also presents tables of required alarms and indicators for spaces of different functionality, machinery, and ship or structure type. The principles and guidelines of this chapter apply to visual and auditory alarms/alerts and associated controls, local and remote, which require the attention of personnel. Alarms can be categorised as visual alarms, visual alarms accompanied by audible tones, and audible alarms. These principles apply to visual and audible alarms located on local panels or central control area panels or consoles (e.g., control rooms, navigation bridges). These principles do not necessarily apply to general emergency alarms.

The principles and guidance provided in this chapter apply to the design, layout, and placement of individual controls, displays, and alarms within the context of operations and maintenance activities performed in association with consoles and panels. The figures in this chapter are provided as examples to demonstrate control, display, and alarm integration concepts. These figures are not intended to serve as functional models or designs for any system or equipment. Actual designs must adhere to appropriate Statutory, Class, or other applicable requirements from regulatory bodies.

Computer workstations should comply with the following design recommendations to facilitate task performance and minimise fatigue in personnel. Computer workstations should be designed to accommodate the expected range of personnel.

The principles and guidance contained in this chapter apply to the manual operation of valves, including those operated by hand wheels or levers.

The principles and guidance set out in this chapter apply to any plate, sign, placard, inscription, legend, marking, or combination of these that gives information, warning, or instructions via text, graphics, or symbols. It should be noted that when labels, signs, graphics, or symbols are addressed in regulations from the IMO, Flag State Administrations, classification societies, or other applicable regulatory bodies, those requirements take precedence.

The principles and guidance provided in this chapter apply to the design of stairs, vertical ladders, ramps, walkways, work platforms, and hatches. Criteria are also provided for handles.

The principles and guidance contained in this chapter apply to bridge related equipment maintenance, including equipment access and task requirements.

The principles and guidance provided in this chapter apply to materials handling. Both manual and assisted materials handling are addressed, though particular emphasis is placed upon aspects and factors affecting manual lifting and carrying capacities.

The principles and guidance of this chapter apply to the living and working conditions aboard vessels and offshore installations. The guidance in this chapter provides target minimum levels. These are consistent with overall values and goals of this book in providing specific assistance while improving human performance. The criteria should not be taken as minimum values for regulatory or classification purposes. Where conflicts exist between guidance provided in this chapter and regulations or rules from the IMO, Flag State Administrations, classification societies, or other regulatory bodies, the regulations or rules take precedence.

The principles and data in this chapter apply to the sizing of equipment, accesses, and clearances to provide physical compatibility of the human body (in terms of physical dimensions) and design of interfaces such as: hardware, chairs, hatches, doorways, consoles, panels, and clothing. Sizing of these interfaces is usually done within the context of performing general tasks, such as reaching a control, viewing over a console, sitting in a chair, or exiting through a hatch. Throughout this Part 1 we have been presented with extensive guidance that relates to anthropometric dimensions, and specifically, in respect to Chap. 5 , Integration of controls, displays, and alarms; Chap. 6 , Computer workstation design; Chap. 7 , Manual valve operation, access, location, and orientation; Chap. 9 , Stairs, ladders, ramps, walkways, platforms and hatches; and Chap. 10 , Maintenance considerations. Building on what we have already discussed in these previous chapters, much of the anthropometric guidance presented in the main body of this chapter is applicable to the size and strength characteristics of North American males. Since this book is intended to have international appeal, this chapter is provided so that the main body anthropometric guidance can be modified for use in designs to be operated and maintained by peoples of other regions with different body dimensions. The science of anthropometry focuses on the measurement of human variability of body dimensions and strength as a function of gender, race, and regional origin. The application of anthropometry to design establishes limits (or boundary conditions) for sizing equipment for human use. In essence, it defines size limits in design based on the dimensions of the anticipated population of operating and maintenance personnel.

In the previous chapters of Part 1 of this book, we have examined and discussed some of the main human factor and ergonomic principles, guidelines, and criteria for both vessels and offshore installations with the intention of assisting naval architects, designers, and engineers with integrating ergonomics into marine system design. To apply that information systematically, a human-system interface design process should be used. This chapter offers a practical way to implement such a process. It outlines a simplified and structured approach for addressing ergonomics within the context of engineering design through three sets of activities: (1) analysis, (2) design, and (3) verification and validation.

This chapter provides general guidance relating to the bridge arrangements which apply to vessels possessing valid SOLAS certificates, and having a bridge designed and equipped so to enhance the safety and efficiency of navigation. The design and layout of navigational equipment should always be based on sound ergonomic principles.

The design of navigational equipment should be based on sound ergonomic principles. They are to be constructed of robust, durable and flame retardant materials incorporating the required degree of enclosure protection (i.e., IP 20 for bridge installation and IP 56 for open deck installation) required by the vessel’s Flag State Administration and Class requirements.

Vessels complying with the provisions set out in Chaps 13 – 15 of this book may be assigned the Class notation NBLES (Navigational bridge layout and equipment/systems) or the Class notation NBLES+ (or equivalent).

This chapter outlines the various requirements for the navigation bridge and wheelhouse design, including field of vision, blind sectors, bridge windows, bridge configurations, wheelhouse arrangement, workstation configuration and location of equipment within workstations on vessels engaged in coastal and offshore operations.

The requirements discussed in this chapter relate to those vessels which are fitted with the navigational equipment/systems, as required by Class, and are arranged such as to form an IBS.

This chapter presents an overview of the principles of human interface design appropriate to the design and use of ship navigation bridges. These principles are applicable to the design of displays, controls and the bridge workspace for persons on watch duty who must conduct and monitor operations and respond to ambient and operational conditions.

Work required of bridge personnel extends well beyond that imposed by primary operational and system requirements. Often, analysis of functions and identification of requirements examine only those tasks directly associated with piloting and navigation, interfaces with engineering and means to address a limited number of off-normal events. Additional duties, however, are required of bridge personnel to meet additional technical, administrative and statutory requirements and so on. These requirements should be examined as well during the design of navigation bridges. Design of navigation bridges should consider the entirety of the watchstander job—whether or not specific responsibilities involve some specific hardware interface. Decisions as to how to apply automation to influence bridge personnel workload, for example, must consider task demands that have no attendant hardware and software or that require general purpose hardware and software (e.g., electronic ma

This chapter specifies the basic function and design requirements for bridge arrangement and layout. It has been developed to help ensure that the designs of ships’ bridges adequately provide for the requirements for safe navigation by preventing confusion arising from bridge layout, designing for ease of device access and use and reducing workload and human fatigue.

This chapter discusses the design and use of consoles and workstations on navigational bridges. The goal of this chapter is to assist in the design of usable and efficient bridge elements. The guidance contained in this chapter should be used in conjunction with Chap. 13 , Anthropometric design principles and dimensions.

This chapter specifies the design of displays, controls and information on the bridge. The objective of this chapter is to aid in the successful design, organisation and presentation of displays and the devices that control them.

This chapter outlines the design and use of the alarms and warnings present on the navigational bridge. IMO Resolution A.830(19), Code on Alarms and Indicators, (1995) presents “general design guidance […] to promote uniformity of type, location and priority…” for bridge alarms and indicators. Please refer to that document for tables of required alarms and indicators for ships’ bridges and machinery spaces of different functionality, machinery and ship type.

This chapter discusses design considerations associated with providing navigation bridge personnel with visual and audible information that will support successful completion of tasks on the navigation bridge. This includes coding, procedures and other aides memoires.

The work environment in which tasks are performed has a significant influence on human performance. This chapter addresses task performance design considerations associated with the navigation bridge work environment including vibration; noise; lighting; device and instrument illumination; and HVAC.

Human performance can be affected by the facilities provided on or adjacent to the bridge. Factors such as refreshment facilities, sanitary facilities and the interior décor should be designed to minimise human stress and distraction. The subject areas touched on in this chapter will be examined and discussed in greater detail throughout Part 3.

As we now know, ergonomics focuses on and represents bridge personnel needs and requirements throughout the life cycle of systems. The goal is to minimise human error, thereby maximising human and total system safety and effectiveness. This is accomplished through the application of ergonomic research and design guidance; the conduct of appropriate analyses and solicitation of bridge personnel input to derive requirements and needs; and the application of a cogent, pragmatic, ergonomic design process.

This chapter is designed to provide a single source for habitability criteria suitable for ships. This chapter may be applied to vessels falling under the following categories: oil and/or chemical tankers, bulk and/or combination carriers, container vessels, multi-purpose cargo vessels, or crew areas on passenger vessels. This chapter does not apply to vessels such as offshore support vessels, tugboats, tow boats, dredgers, research vessels, drill ships, anchor handling vessels or any other vessel providing service to offshore oil and gas exploration and production.

To promote maritime safety, efficiency, and habitability, it is important that seafarers maintain appropriate levels of mental and physical fitness while on board vessels. To help accomplish this, seafarers should be provided with suitable accommodation areas.

Working and/or living on board vessels imposes a series of generally low-frequency mechanical vibration, as well as single-impulse shock loads on the human body. Low-frequency vibrations are also imposed by vessel motions, which are produced by the various sea states in conjunction with vessel speed. These motions can result in motion sickness, body instability, fatigue, and increased health risk aggravated by shock loads induced by vessel slamming. Vessel slamming may be caused by dynamic impact loads being exerted on the vessel’s bottom or bow flare due to vessel size, speed, and wave conditions. Higher-frequency vibration influencing comfort is often associated with rotating machinery.

A large amount of research has been performed on the effects of noise on humans. Established or commonly used criteria exist for the effects of noise on speech communication, hearing loss, sleep, concentration, and “annoyance”. These have provided a basis for the guidance provided in this chapter. A detailed discussion of the effects of noise on human performance, health, and comfort may be found in Kryter (1994) The Handbook of Hearing and the Effects of Noise: Physiology, Psychology and Public Health. In this chapter, noise criteria have been selected to improve crew performance and to facilitate communication and sleep in appropriate vessel spaces. An additional goal is to enhance crew safety and comfort. In this instance, “comfort” means the ability of the crew to use a space for its intended purpose with minimal interference or annoyance from noise. The noise criteria presented in this chapter is lower than the levels commonly associated with hearing loss.

Thermal comfort is defined in ISO 7730 as “… that condition of mind which expresses satisfaction with the thermal environment”. The sensation of thermal comfort is therefore largely subjective and will vary from person to person. Due to differences in metabolism and expectations, there are distinct individual differences among people’s perception of comfort as a function of temperature, humidity, and other atmospheric characteristics. Acclimatisation, habits, and expectations influence perceived comfort. These individual differences make it difficult to specify a single thermal environment that will be satisfactory to everyone. A thermal environment is therefore typically defined to be acceptable to at least 80% of the occupants of an interior space.

The lighting of seafarer spaces should facilitate visual task performance, facilitate movement in the space and aid in the creation of an appropriate visual environment. Lighting design involves integrating these aspects to provide adequate illumination for the safety and well-being of the crew as well as for the various tasks performed on board vessels. The selection of appropriate illumination levels for specific tasks and seafarer spaces is an important consideration in the design of lighting systems.

The objective of this chapter is to outline the basic standards for qualifying and certifying testing specialists performing ambient environmental testing and evaluation. These standards apply to the approval of testing specialists that provide whole-body vibration measurements and analysis, noise measurements and analysis, indoor climate measurement and analysis; and lighting measurement and analysis. The general requirements concerning testing specialists are provided in the section on ‘General requirements’ whereas the specific requirements for the test services listed above given in the section titled ‘Detailed requirements by ambient environmental aspect’.

This chapter is designed to provide a single source for habitability criteria suitable for workboats. This chapter may be applied to vessels falling under the following categories: offshore support vessels, tugboats, tow boats, dredgers, research vessels, anchor handling vessels, or other vessels providing service to the offshore oil and gas exploration and production industries. This chapter does not apply to vessels such as oil and chemical tankers, bulk or combination carriers, container carriers, multi-purpose cargo vessels, or MODU. These types of vessels are addressed in Part 3 of this book. In essence, this Part 4 has been written with the objective of improving the quality of crew member performance and comfort by improving working and living environments in terms of accommodation area design and ambient environmental qualities. These habitability criteria have been chosen to provide a means to help reduce crew fatigue, improve performance and safety, and to assist with crew recruiting and retention.

To promote maritime safety, efficiency, and habitability, it is important that seafarers maintain appropriate levels of mental and physical fitness while on board vessels. To help accomplish this, seafarers should be provided with suitable accommodation areas. Appropriate accommodation area design helps promote reliable performance by reducing the potential for fatigue and human error. Appropriately designed and outfitted accommodation areas may also enhance crew morale, recruiting, retention, comfort, and overall quality of life at sea. Conversely, inappropriate accommodation areas can adversely impact a seafarer’s ability to reliably perform assigned duties, fully relax, sleep, and recover from mentally and physically demanding work activities.

Working and/or living on board vessels imposes a series of generally low-frequency mechanical vibration, as well as single-impulse shock loads on the human body. Low-frequency vibrations are also imposed by vessel motions, which are produced by the various sea states in conjunction with vessel speed. These motions can result in motion sickness, body instability, fatigue, and increased health risk aggravated by shock loads induced by vessel slamming. Vessel slamming may be caused by dynamic impact loads being exerted on the vessel’s bottom or bow flare due to vessel size, speed, and wave conditions. Higher-frequency vibration influencing comfort is often associated with rotating machinery. The imposition of higher frequency vibrations (about 1 to 80 Hz) induces corresponding motions and forces within the human body, creating discomfort and possibly resulting in degraded performance and health (Griffin, 1990).

A large amount of research has been performed on the effects of noise on humans. Established or commonly used criteria exist for the effects of noise on speech communication, hearing loss, sleep, concentration, and “annoyance”. These have provided a basis for the guidance provided in this chapter.

Thermal comfort is defined in ISO 7730 as “… that condition of mind which expresses satisfaction with the thermal environment”. The sensation of thermal comfort is therefore largely subjective and will vary from person to person. Due to differences in metabolism and expectations, there are distinct individual differences among people’s perception of comfort as a function of temperature, humidity, and other atmospheric characteristics.

The lighting of seafarer spaces should facilitate visual task performance, facilitate movement in the space and aid in the creation of an appropriate visual environment. Lighting design involves integrating these aspects to provide adequate illumination for the safety and wellbeing of the crew as well as for the various tasks performed on board vessels. The selection of appropriate illumination levels for specific tasks and seafarer spaces is an important consideration in the design of lighting systems

This chapter is designed to provide a single source of guidance and information relating to the habitability criteria suitable for new and existing offshore installations. This chapter may be applied to installations falling under the categories of tension leg platforms (TLP), floating production, storage and offloading (FPSO), floating, storage and offloading (FSO), spars, fixed platforms, or any other buoyant or non-buoyant structure supported by or attached to the seafloor. It does not apply to offshore service vessels, dredgers, or mobile offshore drilling units such as self-elevating drilling units (SEDU), column-stabilised drilling units, or drillships as these are discussed in Part 4 of this book.

To promote maritime safety, efficiency, and habitability, it is important that personnel maintain appropriate levels of mental and physical fitness while on board installations. To help accomplish this, personnel employed on board offshore installations should be provided with suitable accommodation areas. Appropriate personnel accommodation area design helps promote reliable performance by reducing the potential for fatigue and human error.

Working and/or living on board offshore installations imposes a series of generally low-frequency mechanical vibration, as well as single-impulse shock loads on the human body. Low-frequency vibrations are also imposed by the installation’s motions, which are produced by the various sea states. These motions can result in motion sickness, body instability, fatigue, and increased health risk aggravated by shock loads Some shock loads may be produced by wave “slamming”.

A large amount of research has been performed on the effects of noise on humans. Established or commonly used criteria exist for the effects of noise on speech communication, hearing loss, sleep, concentration, and “annoyance”. These have provided a basis for the guidance provided in this chapter.

Thermal comfort is defined in ISO 7730 as “… that condition of mind which expresses satisfaction with the thermal environment”. The sensation of thermal comfort is therefore largely subjective and will vary from person to person. Due to differences in metabolism and expectations, there are distinct individual differences among people’s perception of comfort as a function of temperature, humidity, and other atmospheric characteristics.

The lighting of personnel spaces should facilitate visual task performance, facilitate movement in the space and aid in the creation of an appropriate visual environment. Lighting design involves integrating these aspects to provide adequate illumination for the safety and wellbeing of the personnel as well as for the various tasks performed on board offshore installations. The selection of appropriate illumination levels for specific tasks and seafarer spaces is an important consideration in the design of lighting systems.

The dominant factor for operations in polar and sub-polar regions is the occurrence of extremely low temperatures and the associated formation of ice. In low temperatures, any precipitation will be in the form of snow, or at closer to the freezing point as freezing rain, sleet or ice pellets. Visibility in any of these conditions can be very limited and ice build-up can produce a range of hazards, as described earlier.

This chapter relates to vessels operating in low temperature environments. This chapter contains recommendations only and specific advice should be sought wherever appropriate. The vessel’s crew will need to make regular checks of safety–critical systems and equipment so that they are functioning or capable of functioning as intended.

Working in cold weather environments has significant implications on human capabilities and unless proper precautions are made can be hazardous to a person’s health. In recognition of these implications on human health and performance due to working in cold climes, this chapter provides some basic guidance and information in relation to.

Training and manning are both important considerations for all vessels. However, this is especially true on those vessels which operate in cold climate areas. Operations in ice require special skills if they are to be accomplished safely and efficiently; and even the most capable ice breakers cannot be piloted without the exercise of due caution and respect for the environment.