1 Introduction
2 Methodology
2.1 Identification of objectives
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RQ1: Does a universal definition for “ride-sharing” exist in literature, and how is ride-sharing defined?
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RQ2: Do ride-sharing online platforms (i.e., in operation and inactive) share common attributes?
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RQ3: What factors affect passenger and drivers to use ride-sharing?
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RQ4: What prevents ride-sharing systems from being successful?
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Definition of a ride-sharing;
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State-of-the-art analysis of ride-sharing online platforms;
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Identification of factors affecting current and potential ride-sharing passenger and drivers.
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Synthesis and discussion of barriers for implementing a successful ride-sharing system.
2.2 Identification of data sources and databases
2.3 Selection of publications
2.4 Development of tools for data collection
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Name of company/ride-sharing platform
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Potential barriers and provided incentives
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Country of operation
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Company/provider website
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Current status of ride-sharing platform (in/not in operation)
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Period of operation of the ride-sharing platform
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Provision of urban/interurban transport services (i.e., urban trips here are considered within the same city; interurban include all other trip types).
2.5 Analysis
2.6 Exploration and synthesis
3 Results
Literature | Year | Location | Platforms | User factors | Barriers |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Abrahamse and Keall [1] | 2012 | N. Zealand | ● | ● | |
Agatz et al. [3] | 2012 | US | ● | ||
Amey et al. [4] | 2011 | US | ● | ● | |
Bicocchi and Mamei [10] | 2014 | Italy | ● | ||
Brownstone and Golob [11] | 1992 | US | ● | ||
Buliung et al. [12] | 2009 | Canada | ● | ||
Buliung et al. [13] | 2010 | US | ● | ● | |
Bulteau et al. [14] | 2019 | France | ● | ||
Chan and Shaheen [20] | 2012 | US | |||
Chaube et al. [23] | 2010 | US | ● | ||
Ciari [24] | 2012 | Switzerland | ● | ||
Ciari and Axhausen [25] | 2012 | Switzerland | ● | ||
Correia and Viegas [28] | 2016 | Lisbon | ● | ● | |
Deakin et al. [30] | 2010 | US | ● | ||
Delhomme and Gheorghiu [31] | 2014 | France | ● | ||
Dorner and Berger [33] | 2016 | Germany | ● | ||
Ferguson [37] | 1995 | US | ● | ● | |
Furuhata et al. [38] | 2013 | US | ● | ● | |
Gargiulo et al. [39] | 2015 | Italy | ● | ● | |
Gheorghiu and Delhomme [42] | 2018 | France | ● | ● | |
Guidotti et al. [45] | 2017 | Italy | ● | ||
Gurumurthy and Kockelman [46] | 2020 | US | ● | ||
Hartwig et al. [48] | 2007 | US | ● | ||
Heinrichs et al. [49] | 2016 | Germany | ● | ||
Hwang and Giuliano [50] | 1990 | US | ● | ||
Javid et al. [52] | 2017 | Pakistan | ● | ||
Jiang et al. [53] | 2018 | China | ● | ||
Kelly [54] | 2007 | US | ● | ||
Kladeftiras and Antoniou [55] | 2015 | Greece | ● | ||
Lee and Savelsbergh [57] | 2015 | US | |||
Lee et al. [58] | 2016 | US | ● | ||
Li et al. [61] | 2007 | US | ● | ● | |
Monchambert [65] | 2017 | France | ● | ● | |
Morency [66] | 2012 | US | ● | ||
Mote and Whitestone [68] | 2010 | US | ● | ||
Neoh et al. [73] | 2017 | UK | ● | ● | |
Nikitas et al. [74] | 2017 | UK | ● | ||
Nourinejad and Roorda [71] | 2016 | Canada | |||
Olsson et al. [75] | 2019 | Global | ● | ● | |
Payyanadan and Lee [76] | 2017 | US | ● | ||
Shaheen and Cohen [82] | 2019 | US | ● | ||
Shaheen et al. [83] | 2012 | US | ● | ||
Shaheen et al. [84] | 2017 | France | ● | ● | |
Stiglic et al. [90] | 2016 | US | ● | ||
Tahmasseby et al. [92] | 2016 | Canada | ● | ||
Tavory et al. [93] | 2019 | Global | ● | ||
Vanoutrive et al. [97] | 2016 | Belgium | ● | ||
Wang [100] | 2011 | China | ● | ||
Wang et al. [102] | 2017 | Australia | ● | ||
Wang and Chen [101] | 2019 | US | ● | ||
Wang et al. [103] | 2018 | US | ● | ||
Wang et al. [104] | 2019a | China | ● | ||
Wang et al. [105] | 2019b | China | ● | ||
Wilkowska et al. [107] | 2014 | Germany | ● | ||
Xu et al. [108] | 2015 | US | ● | ||
Yin et al. [109] | 2017 | France | ● |
3.1 Ride-sharing definition
Literature | Year | Location | Definition |
---|---|---|---|
Abrahamse and Keall [1] | 2012 | N. Zealand | Carpooling is defined as the shared use of a private vehicle by the driver and one or more passengers (replacing the use of one or more other vehicles), generally for the purpose of commuting to and from work |
Agatz et al. [2] | 2011 | US | Ride-sharing refers to a system where an automated process employed by a ride-share provider matches up drivers and riders on very short notice, which can range from a few minutes to a few hours before departure time |
Brownstone and Golob [11] | 1992 | US | Carpooling (hereafter called ride-sharing) is defined in the Southern California sense as two or more occupants per vehicle |
Chan and Shaheen [20] | 2012 | US | Ride-sharing is the grouping of travellers into common trips by car or van. When a ride-sharing payment is collected, it partially covers the driver’s cost. It is not intended to result in a financial gain. Moreover, the driver has a common origin and/or destination with the passengers |
Furuhata et al. [38] | 2013 | US | Ride-sharing refers to a mode of transportation in which individual travellers share a vehicle for a trip and split travel costs such as gas, toll, and parking fees with others that have similar itineraries and time schedules. Ride-sharing is a system that can combine the flexibility and speed of private cars with the reduced cost of fixed-line systems, at the expense of convenience |
Gargiulo et al. [39] | 2015 | EU | Ride-sharing is the transportation of persons in a motor vehicle when such transportation is incidental to the principal purpose of the driver, which is to reach a destination and not to transport persons for profit |
Guidotti et al. [45] | 2017 | EU | Carpooling is the act where two or more travellers share the same car for a common trip |
Kladeftiras and Antoniou [55] | 2015 | EU (Greece) | Dynamic ride-sharing and traditional carpooling both involve pre-arrangements, but dynamic ride-sharing differs in the fact that the scheduling of the trip occurs in a case-by-case basis |
Lee and Savelsbergh [57] | 2015 | US | Dynamic ride-sharing is a recent alternative in which people with similar travel plans are matched and travel together. Ride-sharing systems, where participants with similar travel itineraries are paired together |
Nourinejad and Roorda [71] | 2016 | Canada | Dynamic ride-sharing involves a service provider that matches potential drivers and passengers with similar itineraries allowing them to travel together and share the costs. These services are dynamic in nature since users announce their participation at any time by either requesting a ride as a passenger or offering a ride as a driver |
Shaheen and Cohen [82] | 2019 | US | Shared ride services allow riders to share a ride to a common destination. They include ride-sharing (carpooling and vanpooling); ride-splitting (a pooled version of ride-sourcing/transportation network companies); taxi sharing; and micro transit |
Wang, Winter and Ronald [102] | 2017 | Australia | Ride-sharing is a mode of transportation where a driver takes passengers on a non-commercial, e.g., shared cost basis, for accompanied costs such as petrol |
3.2 Ride-sharing platforms
Name | Continent | Year | In operation | Service distance |
---|---|---|---|---|
Auto strade carpooling [6] | EU | 2009– | Yes | Interurban |
Autoincomune [5] | EU | 2012–2017 | No | Urban |
Avacar [7] | EU | 2011–2013 | No | Urban/Interurban |
BlaBlaCar [8] | Global | 2006– | Yes | Interurban |
Bring-me [9] | EU | 2011–2014 | No | Urban |
Car2gether [15] | Global | 2010–2011 | No | Urban/Interurban |
Carriva [16] | EU | 2008– | No | Urban |
Carticipate [17] | Global | 2008–2012 | No | Urban |
Casual carpool [18] | US | 1990– | Yes | Urban |
DiDi Hitch [32] | Asia | 2015– | Yes | Interurban |
GoCarma [43] | US | 2007– | Yes | Urban |
Gomore.dk [44] | EU | 2005– | Yes | Urban/Interurban |
JoJob (Italy, Spain) [51] | EU | 2014– | Yes | Urban |
Liftshare [62] | EU | 1998– | Yes | Urban |
Motar (Central Europe) [67] | EU | 2007– | Yes | Urban/Interurban |
MyLifts (aka EuroLifts) [70] | EU | 1997– | Yes | Urban/Interurban |
PoolMyRide [78] | Asia | 2013– | Yes | Urban/Interurban |
Poparide (Canada and US) [79] | Global | 2010– | Yes | Interurban |
Ride joy [85] | US | 2011–2013 | No | Interurban |
RideShark (Canada and US) [80] | Global | 2002– | Yes | Urban/Interurban |
Roadsharing [81] | EU | 2008– | Yes | Urban/Interurban |
sRide [87] | Asia | 2014– | Yes | Urban/Interurban |
TwoGo [96] | US | 2011– | Yes | Urban/Interurban |
Viaggiainsieme [98] | EU | 2010–2016 | No | Urban |
Ville Fluide [99] | EU | 2008–2015 | No | Urban |
Waze carpool [106] | Global | 2018– | Yes | Urban |
youTrip [110] | EU | 2009– | Yes | Interurban |
Zebigo [90] | US | 2010–2013 | No | Urban |
Zimride [112] | US | 2007–2015 | No | Urban/Interurban |
3.3 User factors
Literature | Year | Location | Sociodemographic | Location | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Marital status | Trip purpose | Income | Gender | Educational level | Age | Sustainability concerns | Travel distance/time | Lack of public transport/frequency | Area density | |||
Abrahamse and Keall [1] | 2012 | N. Zealand | ● | ● | ||||||||
Amey et al. [4] | 2011 | US | ● | ● | ● | ● | ||||||
Brownstone and Golob [11] | 1992 | US | ● | ● | ||||||||
Buliung et al. [13] | 2010 | US | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | |||||
Bulteau et al. [14] | 2019 | France | ● | ● | ||||||||
Chaube et al. [23] | 2010 | US | ● | |||||||||
Ciari and Axhausen [24] | 2012 | Switzerland | ● | ● | ● | |||||||
Correia and Viegas [28] | 2016 | Lisbon | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | |||||
Deakin et al. [30] | 2010 | US | ● | |||||||||
Delhomme and Gheorghiu [31] | 2014 | France | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | |||||
Dorner and Berger [33] | 2016 | Germany | ● | ● | ● | |||||||
Ferguson [37] | 1997 | US | ● | ● | ● | ● | ||||||
Gargiulo et al. [39] | 2015 | Italy | ||||||||||
Gheorghiu and Delhomme [42] | 2018 | France | ● | ● | ● | ● | ||||||
Gurumurthy and Kockelman [46] | 2020 | US | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | |||||
Heinrichs et al. [49] | 2016 | Germany | ● | ● | ● | |||||||
Javid et al. [52] | 2017 | Pakistan | ● | ● | ● | |||||||
Kladeftiras and Antoniou [55] | 2015 | Greece | ||||||||||
Lee et al. [58] | 2016 | US | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | |||
Li et al. [61] | 2007 | US | ● | ● | ● | |||||||
Monchambert [65] | 2017 | France | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | |||||
Morency [66] | 2012 | US | ||||||||||
Neoh et al. [73] | 2017 | UK | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ||
Olsson et al. [75] | 2019 | Global | ● | ● | ● | ● | ||||||
Shaheen and Cohen [82] | 2019 | US | ● | ● | ● | ● | ||||||
Shaheen et al. [84] | 2017 | France | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | |||||
Tahmasseby et al. [92] | 2016 | Canada | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ||||
Wang [100] | 2011 | China | ● | ● | ● | |||||||
Wang and Chen [101] | 2019 | US | ● | ● | ||||||||
Wang et al. [104] | 2019a | China | ||||||||||
Wang et al. [105] | 2019b | China | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ||||
Wilkowska et al. [107] | 2014 | Germany | ● | ● | ● |
Literature | Year | Location | System | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Trip cost | Security /trust | Incentives* | Matching information/availability | Lack of flexibility | Socializing | |||
Abrahamse and Keall [1] | 2012 | N. Zealand | ● | ● | ● | ● | ||
Amey et al. [4] | 2011 | US | ||||||
Brownstone and Golob [11] | 1992 | US | ● | |||||
Buliung et al. [13] | 2010 | US | ● | ● | ● | ● | ||
Bulteau et al. [14] | 2019 | France | ● | |||||
Chaube et al. [23] | 2010 | US | ● | ● | ● | ● | ||
Ciari and Axhausen [24] | 2012 | Switzerland | ||||||
Correia and Viegas [28] | 2016 | Lisbon | ● | ● | ● | |||
Deakin et al. [30] | 2010 | US | ● | ● | ||||
Delhomme and Gheorghiu [31] | 2014 | France | ● | ● | ||||
Dorner and Berger [33] | 2016 | Germany | ● | ● | ||||
Ferguson [37] | 1997 | US | ||||||
Gargiulo et al. [39] | 2015 | Italy | ● | ● | ● | ● | ||
Gheorghiu and Delhomme [42] | 2018 | France | ● | ● | ||||
Gurumurthy and Kockelman [46] | 2020 | US | ||||||
Heinrichs et al. [49] | 2016 | Germany | ● | ● | ||||
Javid et al. [52] | 2017 | Pakistan | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | |
Kladeftiras and Antoniou [55] | 2015 | Greece | ● | ● | ||||
Lee et al. [58] | 2016 | US | ● | ● | ● | |||
Li et al. [61] | 2007 | US | ● | ● | ● | ● | ||
Monchambert [65] | 2017 | France | ||||||
Morency [66] | 2012 | US | ● | |||||
Neoh et al. [73] | 2017 | UK | ● | ● | ● | ● | ||
Olsson et al. [75] | 2019 | Global | ● | ● | ● | ● | ||
Shaheen and Cohen [82] | 2019 | US | ● | ● | ||||
Shaheen et al. [84] | 2017 | France | ||||||
Tahmasseby et al. [92] | 2016 | Canada | ● | ● | ● | ● | ||
Wang [100] | 2011 | China | ||||||
Wang and Chen [101] | 2019 | US | ● | |||||
Wang et al. [104] | 2019a | China | ● | ● | ||||
Wang et al. [105] | 2019b | China | ● | ● | ||||
Wilkowska et al. [107] | 2014 | Germany | ● | ● | ● |